Q1. 
Explain what is meant by ‘androgyny’.
(Total 1 mark)

Q2. 
Which one of the following statements about Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of gender development is false? Write the letter of your chosen answer in your answer booklet.
Freud suggested that little boys
 
 	A	are afraid of their father.	
 	B	are jealous of their father.	
 	C	are jealous of their mother.	
 	D	come to internalise their father’s views.	
 	E	have a romantic attachment to their mother.	

(Total 1 mark)

Q3. 
Describe and evaluate Kohlberg’s explanation of gender development.
(Total 16 marks)

Q4. 
Briefly outline the biological explanation for gender identity disorder.
(Total 2 marks)

Q5. 
Explain two limitations of the biological explanation for gender identity disorder.
(Total 6 marks)

Q6. 
Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.

 
 	Social psychologists are writing a report about their research into children’s toys. They write, ‘Parents still tend to buy pink for girls. In fact, it is hard to find any adverts aimed at girls that are not ‘pink and fluffy’. For boys, parents tend to buy more competitive or combat-type toys. Good against evil is a common theme in adverts aimed at boys. Even at school, playground activities are different. As children get older, boys and girls tend to have more shared interests like music’.	

Discuss the influence of culture and media on the development of gender roles. Refer to the report above in your answer.
(Total 16 marks)

Q7. 
Describe and evaluate Kohlberg’s cognitive theory of gender development.
Refer to evidence in your answer.
(Total 16 marks)

Q8. 
Choose one study in which cultural variations in gender-related behaviour were investigated.
Explain one methodological problem in relation to this study.
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(Total 3 marks)

Q9. 
Joey has stolen a bag of sweets from the local shop. His friend Ross says: “My dad says that stealing is wrong and I agree with him.”
With reference to the Oedipus complex, explain why Ross agrees with his father.
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(Total 2 marks)

Q10. 
Identify and briefly explain one limitation of the biological approach to gender development.
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(Total 2 marks)

Q11. 
(a)     Give one difference between males who have Klinefelter’s syndrome and males with typical sex chromosome patterns.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)

(b)     Explain why psychologists study individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome.
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(2)
(Total 3 marks)

Q12. 
Describe research into social influences on gender.
(Total 8 marks)

Q13. 
Describe and evaluate biological explanations of gender development. Refer to evidence in your answer.
(Total 16 marks)

Q14. 
(a)     William is 2 years old. When his grandmother asks him what he would like to be when he grows up, William replies, “I want to be a mummy.”
What is meant by gender stability? Explain the comment made by William as part of your answer.
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(2)

(b)     Tilly is 5 years old. When her auntie comes to visit, Tilly is shocked to see that her auntie’s hair, which was very long, is now very short. When her auntie leaves later that day, Tilly asks her mummy, “Is auntie a man now?”
What is meant by gender constancy? Explain the comment made by Tilly as part of your answer.
______________________________________________________________
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(2)
(Total 4 marks)

Q15. 
(a)     Choose one study in which social learning theorist(s) investigated gender development.
Describe how the social learning theorist(s) investigated gender development in this study.
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______________________________________________________________
(3)

(b)     Explain one methodological or one ethical issue that arose in the study that you have described in your answer to part (a).
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 5 marks)

Q16. 
Describe and evaluate the gender schema theory of gender development.
(Total 16 marks)

Q17. 
Describe and evaluate Freud’s psychoanalytic explanation of gender development. As part of your evaluation you should refer to biological explanations of gender development.
(Total 16 marks)

Q18. 
Explain one methodological problem that might occur when asking young children questions about gender development.
___________________________________________________________________
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(Total 3 marks)

Q19. 
Using a gender-related example, explain one reason why some adult behaviours or actions seen by children are not copied.
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(Total 2 marks)

Q20. 
Read the article below.
 
 	Is your child watching you?
Research by social learning theorists into gender development has shown that children learn many of their gender-related behaviours from others. There are many examples of children copying the behaviour of adults, such as a young girl trying on her mother’s make-up. Of course, there are many reasons why some adult behaviours or actions seen by children are not copied.	

Briefly explain what social learning theorists mean by modelling in relation to gender development. Refer to the article above in your answer.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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(Total 2 marks)

Q21. 
Discuss biological and social learning explanations of gender development.
Refer to evidence in your answer.
(Total 16 marks)

Q22. 
Kohlberg has described how children develop an understanding of gender in stages.
Outline the difference in understanding of gender between the gender stability stage and the gender constancy stage.
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(Total 2 marks)

Q23. 
As part of a study into gender schema, an opportunity sample of 50 boys aged 6 years from a primary school watched a film. In the film, a man was seen watching TV, mowing the lawn and doing the ironing.
One week later, all the boys were asked to recall what they had seen in the film.

The results are shown in the table below.
Number of boys who recalled each activity shown in the film
 
 	Activity shown in the film	Number of boys who recalled
seeing the activity	
 	Man watching TV	47	
 	Man mowing the lawn	49	
 	Man doing the ironing	23	

(a)     Use your knowledge of gender schema theory to explain the results shown in the table above.
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(4)

(b)     The sampling method used in the study was opportunity sampling.
What is meant by opportunity sampling?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
(1)

(c)     In a follow-up study, the researchers had parental consent to interview the boys in the sample. The researchers wanted to find out which occupations the boys thought were suitable for men and which they thought were suitable for women.
Explain why it would be appropriate to use unstructured interviews in this study.
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(3)
(Total 8 marks)

Q24. 
Discuss Kohlberg’s theory of gender development.
(Total 16 marks)

 

M1. 
[AO1 = 1]
1 mark for a correct definition: possessing a balanced combination / mixture of masculine and feminine traits.
Or possessing high levels of both masculine and feminine traits.

M2. 
[AO1 = 1]
C

M3. 
[AO1 = 6 and AO3 = 10]
 
 	Level	Marks	Description	
 	4	13 – 16	Knowledge of Kohlberg’s explanation of gender development is accurate and generally well detailed. Evaluation is thorough and effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.	
 	3	9 – 12	Knowledge of Kohlberg’s explanation of gender development is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies. Evaluation is apparent and mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in places.	
 	2	5 – 8	Some knowledge of Kohlberg’s explanation of gender development is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any evaluation is only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.	
 	1	1 – 4	Knowledge of Kohlberg’s explanation of gender development is limited. Evaluation is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either absent or inappropriately used.	
 	 	0	No relevant content.	

Possible content:
•        cognitive theory – relates to child’s understanding of gender
•        stages of gender development: identity (awareness of own gender), stability (understanding of (own) gender as fixed over time), constancy (consistency) understanding that gender is unchanged despite changes in outward appearance (clothing, hair etc) or context
•        approximate ages: identity (2–3 yrs), stability (4–6 yrs) constancy (7+ yrs)
•        processes involved in transition through stages: maturation, socialisation, lessening egocentrism.

Possible evaluation points:
•        sensible focus on cognition (thinking governs behaviour) compared to, eg behavioural explanations
•        use of evidence to support stages (eg Slaby and Frey 1975; Damon 1977)
•        cross-cultural findings confirm the three stages (eg Munro et al 1984)
•        Kohlberg’s underestimation of age at which gender identity occurs, eg children seek out same-sex playmates earlier than the proposed gender identity stage
•        focus on description rather than explanation
•        inability to explain why boys show stronger sex-typing than girls
•        comparison with other explanations, eg gender schema theory.
Credit other relevant evaluation points.
Only credit evaluation of the methodology used in studies when made relevant to evaluation of the explanation.

M4. 
AO1 = 2
1 mark – over or under-exposure to androgens in the womb (over-exposure for females, under–exposure for males) and consequent masculinisation or feminisation
Plus
1 mark – neurobiological abnormality resulting from either genes or pre-natal stress (and links to handedness)

M5. 
AO3 = 6
 
 	Level	Marks	Description	
 	3	5 – 6	Explanation of two limitations is clear and effective. The answer is coherent and well organised with effective use of specialist terminology.	
 	2	3 – 4	Explanation of two limitations is mostly effective although one or both lack explanation. The answer is mostly clear and organised, with appropriate use of specialist terminology.
OR One limitation is explained at top of Level 3.	
 	1	1 – 2	At least one limitation is presented. Explanation lacks detail/is minimal/is muddled. Specialist terminology is either absent or inappropriately used.
OR One limitation is explained at top of Level 2.	
 	 	0	No relevant content.	

Possible limitations:
•        Biological explanations would not support the lack of continuity between childhood gender identity disorder and gender identity disorder in adulthood (Drummond et al)
•        Gender identity disorder as biological determined and thus inevitable, 'biology is destiny'
•        Evaluative comparison with other explanations
•        Use of evidence against the biological explanation
•        Broader scientific issues eg difficulty showing cause and effect; reductionism
•        Limited incidence therefore limited evidence – problems of testability
Credit other relevant information.

M6. 
AO1 = 6, AO2 = 4 and AO3 = 6
 
 	Level	Marks	Description	
 	4	13 – 16	Knowledge of influence of culture and media on the development of gender roles is accurate and generally well detailed. Discussion is thorough and effective. Application to the stem is appropriate and links between influence of culture and media and stem content are explained. The answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and/or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.	
 	3	9 – 12	Knowledge of influence of culture and media on the development of gender roles is evident. Discussion is apparent and mostly effective. There are occasional inaccuracies. Application to the stem is appropriate although links to influence of culture and media are not always explained. The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in places.	
 	2	5 – 8	Knowledge of influence of culture and media on the development of gender roles is present but is vague/inaccurate or one only is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any discussion is only partly effective. Application to the stem is partial. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology used inappropriately on occasions.	
 	1	1 – 4	Knowledge of influence of culture and/or media on the development of gender roles is limited. Discussion is limited, poorly focused or absent. Application is limited or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either absent or inappropriately used.	
 	 	0	No relevant content.	

Possible content:
•        Social learning theory and modelling – role of factors such as observation, imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement
•        Mediating cognitive variables – children more likely to imitate models who are attractive, similar, high status etc.
•        Cultural representations of gender and reinforcement in various forms of media (TV, books, computer games etc)
•        Role of direct reinforcement of gender stereotypical behaviours by parents, teachers, peers

Possible applications:
•        Parental reinforcement ‘parents still tend to buy pink for girls’ ‘parents tend to buy more competitive or combat-type toys’
•        Stereotypical media representations ‘.. adverts aimed at girls ‘pink and fluffy’ ‘good against evil ….. adverts aimed at boys’
•        Schools reinforce different activities ‘playground activities are different’
•        Age as a mediating variable ‘more shared interests like music’

Possible discussion points:
•        Use of evidence to support the influence of culture eg cross-cultural evidence of differences in gender roles in different societies supports the view that gender is socially determined; Serbin’s evidence of the effects of teachers on boys’ and girls’ behaviour
•        Use of evidence to support the influence of media eg Wober’s study of ‘male’ and ‘female’ occupations
•        Influence of media per se versus specific forms of media – not all representations are stereotyped – discussion of degree of stereotyping in different forms of media eg TV versus computer games versus books
•        Age as a mediating variable
•        Differences in effects for boys and girls
•        Problems of inferring cause and effect and the issue of determinism
•        Evaluation of evidence where used to discuss influence of culture and media
•        Comparison with alternative explanations eg biological and evolutionary explanations
Credit other relevant information.

M7. 
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10
 
 	Level	Marks	Description	
 	4	13 – 16	Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed. Evidence is clear. Discussion / evaluation / application is thorough and effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.	
 	3	9 – 12	Knowledge is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies. Evidence is presented. Discussion / evaluation / application is apparent and mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in places.	
 	2	5 – 8	Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any discussion / evaluation / application is only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.	
 	1	1 – 4	Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation / application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either absent or inappropriately used.	
 	 	0	No relevant content.	

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a bulleted list.
AO1
Candidates are likely to describe each of Kohlberg’s three stages: Gender identity (2-3 years) – a child is able to label themselves as a boy or girl and label others as boys or girls. Gender stability (3-4 years) – a child understands that they will stay the same sex forever / fixed. Gender constancy (4½- 7 years) – a child understands that he or she does not change sex by changing appearance or being in different situations (applies to others too).
Candidates can receive some credit for the provision of examples / questions that may be asked to measure a child’s understanding of their own gender development.

AO3
Candidates may focus on how there is support for Kohlberg’s theory of gender development eg Damon’s study; cross-cultural support eg Munroe. Candidates may criticise Kohlberg’s theory as being more descriptive than explanatory. Kohlberg underestimated the age with which children can identify their own sex – there is evidence to suggest that gender identity occurs earlier than Kohlberg suggested. Alternatively, candidates may use other explanations of gender development as part of their evaluation. For example, the biological explanation states that gender is determined by genes, chromosomes, hormones – factors outside of the child’s control.
Psychoanalytic psychologists would argue that Kohlberg does not consider the importance of the unconscious mind in the development of gender. Social learning theorists would criticise Kohlberg’s assumption that the acquisition of a child’s understanding of gender is passive in nature.

M8. 
[AO3 = 3]
One mark for identification of a relevant problem. 
Up to two marks for relating the problem to the study. 
Likely studies: Mead – Three tribes; La Fromboise; Buss etc.

Likely problems: validity; researcher bias; ethnocentrism; subjectivity on the part of the researcher, lack of inter-rater reliability etc.

Maximum of one mark if answer is totally generic and no study is identifiable.

M9. 
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]
AO1
1 mark for stating that Ross has identified with his father.
AO2
One further mark for showing knowledge of what is involved in the Oedipus complex: internalised his father’s characteristics / values / behaviours; this happened in the phallic stage; resolution of conflict (castration anxiety); development of superego etc.

M10. 
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]
AO1
One mark for a relevant limitation.
AO2
One mark for how / why it is a limitation.

Likely limitations: reductionist; crude to suggest differences in complexity of gender are a result of chromosomes; underemphasises nurture / role of the environment; comparison with other explanations may receive credit eg social learning theory only if used to elaborate or explain the limitation etc.

Accept reasoned argument of limitation of the use of animals for testing influences on gender development such as difficulty of generalising results.

M11. 
(a)     [AO1 = 1]
One mark for knowledge of a relevant difference.

Likely differences: chromosomal make up; size of genitalia; limb length; differences in timings of language development, temperament, passivity, shyness etc.

Accept other valid differences. 

(b)     [AO3 = 2]
One mark – for comparison with individuals with typical sex chromosome patterns. 
One mark – inferences may be made of a chromosomal / biological basis / nature-nurture regarding gender development should there be differences found between atypical and typical sex chromosome individuals.

Credit answers that focus on therapeutic value.

M12. 
Marks for this question: AO1 = 8
 
 	Level	Marks	Description	
 	4	7 – 8	Description is accurate and generally well detailed. The answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion sometimes lacking.	
 	3	5 – 6	Description is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies. The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in places.	
 	2	3 – 4	Some description is present. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.
One influence only at Level 4	
 	1	1 – 2	Description is limited. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either absent or inappropriately used.
One influence only at Level 3	
 	 	0	No relevant content.	

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a bulleted list.
AO1
Although ‘research’ includes theories and studies, candidates are likely to focus on some of the many studies investigating the importance of social influences on gender. These include the role of parents, peers, schools, and the media. Their significance for the development of gender identity is likely to be the focus, but cross-cultural studies of social influence on gender would also be relevant. Descriptions of studies should include some detail of eg methods / findings / conclusions.
Overall approaches that attempt to explain social influences on gender, such as the behavioural or social learning theories, would be an alternative route to credit.
Simple identification of social influence such as parents and peers may earn very limited credit.
Note that this question requires description of more than one social influence.

M13. 
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10
 
 	Level	Marks	Description	
 	4	13 – 16	Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed. Evidence is clear. Discussion / evaluation / application is thorough and effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.	
 	3	9 – 12	Knowledge is evident. Evidence is presented. There are occasional inaccuracies. Discussion / evaluation / application is apparent and mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in places.	
 	2	5 – 8	Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any discussion / evaluation / application is only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.	
 	1	1 – 4	Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation / application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either absent or inappropriately used.	
 	 	0	No relevant content.	

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a bulleted list.
AO1
Marks for description of the features of biological explanations of gender development. Students may focus on how genetic factors cause gender-appropriate behaviour – gender and sex are interrelated. Any differences in gender behaviour are due to physiology. Students may choose to focus on hormones, eg the influence of androgens and testosterone or oestrogen and progesterone. Atypical sex chromosomes, eg XXY – Klinefelter’s syndrome; XO – Turner’s syndrome; in terms of the effect these syndromes have on gender development. Students may choose to focus on non-human research, eg Gorski et al (1980) found male rats’ sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN) to be larger inanatomical structure compared to female rats’ SDN which might account for differences in behaviour.
AO3
Marks for an evaluation of biological explanations of gender development. Students may choose to contrast biological explanations of gender development with social learning theorists who state that gender is learnt as a result of socialisation (nurture). The cognitive explanation can be used to criticise biological explanations of gender as being too deterministic – children think about their own and other people’s gender and how they behave as a result. Students are required to refer to evidence in their response. This may be in support / conflict for biological explanations. For example, Money (1975), in the case of the penectomised twin, suggested that nurture was responsible for gender development thereby rejecting nature / biology. However, in a follow-up study by Diamond (1998), Brenda had never felt happy as a girl and resumed her masculine identity (nature) thereby supporting biological explanations. Students may raise methodological issues associated with the extrapolation of findings from animal research to explain human gender development. Students may focus on general limitations of biological explanations, eg reductionism.
Credit comparison such as reference to cultural variations in gender related behaviour. Credit use of relevant evidence.

M14. 
(a)     [AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]
AO1
One mark for knowledge of gender stability. This knowledge may be embedded in the response as a whole.

Gender stability is the realisation / understanding that a person’s (own) sex / gender remains the same / fixed (over time).
AO2
One mark for appropriate link between gender stability and William’s comment.
Can only get the application mark if the AO1 mark has been awarded.

Likely answer: William’s comment shows that he has not acquired gender stability as he thinks he could, in the future, be ‘a mummy.’

(b)     [AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]
AO1
One mark for knowledge of gender constancy. This knowledge may be embedded in the response as a whole.

Gender constancy is the realisation / understanding that a person’s sex / gender remains stable not only over time but in different situations and despite superficial changes in appearance.
AO2
One mark for appropriate link between gender constancy and Tilly’s comment.
Can only get the application mark if the AO1 mark has been awarded.

Likely answer: Tilly’s comment shows that she has not acquired gender constancy as she thinks her auntie could be a man as she now has short hair like a man.

M15. 
(a)     [AO3 = 3]
Up to three marks for relevant detail of what the psychologist(s) did, ie the methodology used, the sample used, the procedure involved in the study, the materials used, how the participants were allocated to conditions in the study, the measure used, what was done with the data, etc.

Accept any studies which involve social learning / socialisation / imitation of gender.

Likely studies: Fagot – parents treatment of boys and girls in the home; Dweck et al – teachers use of feedback in the classroom; Perry and Bussey – children’s preferences for imitation of same-sex models; Masters et al – sex in / appropriate behaviour and imitation in children; Smith and Lloyd – Baby X; Urberg – Who is brave?; DeLoache – Three bears story; Mead Three Tribes study; Furnham and Farragher – TV advertisements, or the content analysis studies of Manstead and McCulloch.
Bandura must focus on the gender development aspects of the study, ie use of male and female models, for the third mark.

(b)     [AO3 = 2]
One mark for brief explanation of a relevant issue.
One mark for how / why it is an issue in relation to the study chosen.

Likely issues: bias on the part of the researcher / issues with reliability / validity / cultural constraints / recording methods / issue of consent / integrity of the researcher / protection of participants, etc.
Credit plausible answers to (b) if answer to (a) not creditworthy as a SLT study of gender development.

M16. 
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10
 
 	Level	Marks	Description	
 	4	13 – 16	Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed. Discussion / evaluation / application is thorough and effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.	
 	3	9 – 12	Knowledge is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies. Discussion / evaluation / application is apparent and mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in places.	
 	2	5 – 8	Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any discussion / evaluation / application is only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.	
 	1	1 – 4	Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation / application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either absent or inappropriately used.	
 	 	0	No relevant content.	

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a bulleted list.
AO1
Credit description of gender schema theory (Martin & Halverson). This is based on the development of gender identity (boy or girl) at about age 2-3, after which the child actively seeks out appropriate behaviours for their own gender and ignores information that does not ‘fit’ with their schema. Toys, for instance, become categorised as belonging to boys or girls. The development of gender schemas also leads to the formation of ingroups and outgroups. The origins of gender schemas would also be relevant. Although not completely detailed, there is evidence that parent’s gender schemas play an important role.
AO3
Use of relevant research studies that would provide an effective route to credit. These generally focus on the early development of gender schemas (eg Campbell et al., 2004) or the influence of parents (eg Tenenbaum & Leaper, 2002). Other studies investigate ingroup and outgroup processes, or the rigidity of gender stereotypes. It is important for marks in the top band that implications of findings for gender schema theory are clear. Methodological evaluation of studies may only earn marks if implications for the theory / explanation are clear eg by explicit reference to a lack of ecological validity affecting the generalisability of findings and hence of the theory / explanation.
Comparison with alternative theories eg Kohlberg or biological approaches to gender is also relevant, as long as the focus remains on gender schema theory.
General commentary might include the success of gender schema theory in explaining the rigidity of gender stereotypes, or the lack of detail in explaining the origins of schema.
Relevant evaluation points also include the nature-nurture debate – gender schema theory emphasises the importance of parents and peers in the formation and maintenance of schema, while the biological approach emphasises the genetic unchangeable nature of gender development. There is evidence for both sides of the argument, which is why the biosocial approach to gender development is increasingly popular. Candidates may also refer to gender differences and biases, cultural differences and biases, free will and determinism, and the ethics of research with children.

M17. 
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10
 
 	Level	Marks	Description	
 	4	13 – 16	Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed. Discussion / evaluation / application and comparison is thorough and effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.	
 	3	9 – 12	Knowledge is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies. Discussion / evaluation / application is apparent and mostly effective. There is some comparison. The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in places.	
 	2	5 – 8	Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any discussion / evaluation / application / comparison is only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.	
 	1	1 – 4	Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation / application / comparison is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either absent or inappropriately used.	
 	 	0	No relevant content.	

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a bulleted list.
AO1
Marks for knowledge in detail of features and assumptions of psychoanalytic theory that are relevant to gender development. Features might include: description of the stage theory of gender development – focus must be on the phallic stage; the Oedipus and Electra complexes; the role of the unconscious; the role of parents; identification process involving internalisation of same-sex parent’s behaviours.

AO3
Marks for evaluation of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of gender development and comparison with the biological explanation of gender.
Likely points, which must be evaluative rather than just statements: the explanation derives from concepts that are largely untestable – the unconscious conflicts in the phallic stage, unconscious use of defence mechanisms as in the case of Little Hans’ phobia; the requirement of a same-sex parent for the process of identification – Malinowski 1929 Trobriand Islander study.
Comparison must be evaluative or analytical rather than just stated differences: Psychoanalytic explanations focus on the role of society, especially childhood experiences and familial relationships whereas biological explanations study chromosomal abnormalities such as Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndromes. Biological factors impact on gender development rather than untestable / unconscious forces. Biological explanations use scientific methods, studying sex hormones experimentally (Van Goozen 1995, Tricker 1996, Dabbs 1995), which means the theories are testable, unlike Freudian explanations. Some biological research is conducted using non-human participants, unlike psychoanalytic explanations.
Credit use of evidence.

M18. 
[AO3 = 3]
One mark for identification of a methodological problem that could be relevant to asking young children questions. 
Likely answers: children may not understand the questions being asked; children may have limited communication skills; subjectivity involved in categorising the responses; practical issue of gaining consent. 
Can accept conferring.

One mark for an explanation of why / how this is a problem. Accept reliability / validity.

One mark for explanation of the impact of the problem identified on the results / investigation.

Possible answer: Children may have limited communication skills (1). This means that they may not be able to express their actual knowledge very clearly and / or the researcher may not be able to understand exactly what the child means (1). So the results of the study – the data obtained – may not reflect accurately the knowledge of the child – it is not measuring what it intends to measure so is not valid (1).

M19. 
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]
AO1
One mark for the reason suggested. 
Likely reasons: copying is not perceived to be appropriate; lack of identification or similarity between model and other; presence of punishment or criticism for the behaviour; lack of ‘attractiveness’ of the model; lack of: attention to the behaviour or model / motivation to produce the behaviour / retention of the behaviour / competence to produce the behaviour.
AO2
One mark for a gender-related example of a behaviour that is not imitated that matches the reason given. 
Possible answers: an example of presence of criticism would be the young girl does not copy her father washing the car because she has been told, ‘that’s a man’s job.’

M20. 
[AO1 = 1, AO2 = 1]
AO1
One mark for a brief explanation of modelling in gender development. 
Likely answers: modelling is a process whereby a child / individual imitates the (gender-related) behaviour of a chosen person – a role model. 
AO2
One mark for application to the article. 
The article suggests that the young girl models the behaviour of her mother by imitating ‘putting on make-up’.

Alternative answer: [When people produce behaviours they are modelling them – providing an opportunity for others to learn how to do something.] 
Modelling is when an adult exhibits (gender related ) behaviour for a child to imitate / copy, (AO1). In the article, the mother is modelling ‘putting on make-up’ and the young girl imitates this behaviour by trying to do the same, (AO2).

M21. 
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10
 
 	Level	Marks	Description	
 	4	13 – 16	Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed.
Discussion / evaluation / application is thorough and effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.	
 	3	9 – 12	Knowledge is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies.
Discussion / evaluation / application is apparent and mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in places.	
 	2	5 – 8	Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any discussion / evaluation / application is only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.
One explanation at Level 4	
 	1	1 – 4	Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation / application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either absent or inappropriately used.
One explanation at Level 3	
 	 	0	No relevant content.	

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a bulleted list.
AO1
Marks for accurate description of the explanations of gender development provided by biological theory and social learning theory (SLT).
Biological: Students may focus on some of the following: how genetic factors cause gender-appropriate behaviour – gender and sex are interrelated; hormones, eg the influence of androgens and testosterone Dabbs et al (1995), Tricker et al (1996) or oestrogen and progesterone Van Goozen et al (1995), Hampson and Kimura (1988);
atypical sex chromosomes, eg XXY – Klinefelter’s syndrome; XO – Turner’s syndrome – in terms of the effect these syndromes have on gender development. Students may choose to focus on non-human research, eg Gorski et al (1980) found male rats’ sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN) to be larger in anatomical structure compared to female rats’ SDN which might account for differences in behaviour, or on case studies such as Imperato-McGinley et al (1978) or Money and Erhardt (1972), Diamond (1997).
SLT: the idea that gender behaviour is learned via observation in social contexts; the influence on gender development of cognitive processes – including some of the following, attention, retention and motivation, reproduction; modelling, Perry and Bussey (1979) and identification; imitation, Masters et al (1979) and reinforcement, Fagot (1978), Dweck et al (1978), Smith and Lloyd (1978) / Baby X studies.

AO3
Marks for discussion of the two explanations.
Students are required to refer to evidence in their response. This may be in support / conflict for either approach. For example, Money (1975) suggested that nurture was responsible for gender development thereby rejecting nature / biology. However, in a follow-up study Diamond (1997), Brenda had never felt happy as a girl and resumed her masculine identity (nature), thereby supporting biological explanations. Students may raise methodological issues associated with the extrapolation of findings from animal research to explain human gender development. They may reflect on the value of unusual case study evidence in a universal explanation of gender development; the issue of cause and effect in testosterone research and the possible impact of environmental factors on biological state. Similarly for SLT weaknesses in the evidence as well as strengths might be considered – the artificiality of laboratory-based research; weaknesses in the explanation of age-related changes or differences in gender behaviours, despite the same environment, and discussion of how these issues might be explained as due to cognitive factors mediating the responses / chosen behaviours.
Credit comparisons with other approaches only if the comparison makes clear the way in which the value of the biological or SLT approach is evident or how either approach is weakened by such comparison.
Credit reference to debates when it is made clear how these impact on strengths or limitations of each explanation.
Credit use of evidence.

M22. 
[AO1 = 2]
Up to 2 marks for an outline of a difference between understanding of gender in the gender stability stage and that in the constancy stage.

In the stability stage, although the child understands his / her own gender remains fixed in spite of outward changes such as hair length / clothing, he / she believes that the gender of others might change if outward appearance changes – in the constancy stage they know that everyone’s gender is fixed in all situations.

M23. 
(a)     [AO3 = 1, AO2 = 3]
AO3
One mark for a description of the results which might be embedded in the application of knowledge of gender schema theory below.

The recall of the activities of watching TV and mowing the lawn was almost perfect / extremely high, but recall for ironing was only 23 / 50 or just less than half.

AO2
Up to 3 marks for use of knowledge of gender schema theory to explain the results of the study. 
Likely points:
•        explaining what a gender schema is – mental representation about gender-related behaviours OR one mark for reference to formation of stereotypes – expectations about what certain genders do
•        relating results to the above – recall of information that fits the schema and stereotype
•        reference to not fully processing or ‘forgetting’ the ironing behaviour which does not fit the schema or stereotype.

(b)     [AO3 = 1]
One mark for a clear definition of opportunity sampling. 
Likely answer: a sampling method in which people who are available to the researcher are used in the study.

Accept alternative wording, such as convenient. Do not accept just ‘willing participants.’

(c)     [AO3 = 3]
Up to 3 marks for an explanation of why unstructured interviews would be appropriate in this study.

Full marks can be credited for one fully elaborated issue.

Credit the following likely points:
•        an unstructured interview would allow the interviewer to respond to the answer given by a child with a specific follow-on question
•        the interviewer may gain new insight / lines of enquiry not explored so far
•        it would enable the researcher to explore further the reason(s) given by the child for his answer – depth and detail
•        it may overcome interpretation / communication issues by allowing the child to be clear about what they are trying to say.
Credit other valid points.

Credit reference to increased validity if there is explanation of how this is achieved. Maximum of 2 marks if answer not specific to this study.

M24. 
Marks for this question: AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10
 
 	Level	Marks	Description	
 	4	13 – 16	Knowledge is accurate and generally well detailed. Discussion / evaluation / application is thorough and effective. The answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist terminology is used effectively. Minor detail and / or expansion of argument sometimes lacking.	
 	3	9 – 12	Knowledge is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies. Discussion / evaluation / application is apparent and mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used effectively. Lacks focus in places.	
 	2	5 – 8	Some knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any discussion / evaluation / application is only partly effective. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.	
 	1	1 – 4	Knowledge is limited. Discussion / evaluation / application is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology either absent or inappropriately used.	
 	 	0	No relevant content.	

Please note that although the content for this mark scheme remains the same, on most mark schemes for the new AQA Specification (Sept 2015 onwards) content appears as a bulleted list.
AO1
Credit description of the stages of Kohlberg’s theory of gender development and of the underlying processes eg socialisation etc. Stages are: gender identity, gender stability, gender constancy (or consistency). Credit particular characteristics of stages and ages (e.g. 2 – 3 years old, 3 – 7 years old, 7 – 12 years old). Note that candidates often confuse gender stability (the idea that gender is permanent and unchangeable, that they were always male or female and will always be male or female), with gender constancy / consistency (the idea that even if girls wear jeans or cut their hair short, they still remain girls). Do not credit Kohlberg’s theory of moral development but such answers should be read carefully for any relevant material.

AO3
Credit use of research evidence, either from Kohlberg himself or from other investigators eg interpretation of the classic Slaby & Frey study. In general Kohlberg’s sequence of stages has been supported. However subsequent research (e.g. emerging from gender schema theory) has suggested that gender development (e.g. sex-role stereotyping) may begin earlier than Kohlberg suggests. Issues of cultural bias would be relevant. Other approaches, such as gender schema theory or the biological and psychodynamic perspectives, may earn credit if used as sustained and effective evaluation of Kohlberg. May credit methodological evaluation of relevant research evidence, as long as the implications for Kohlberg’s theory are clear i.e. issues of informed consent and psychological damage are unlikely to be creditworthy. 
Evaluative links to more general approaches are also relevant, as are references to gender and cultural issues.

 

E7. 
Although a predictable question given the specification, answers to this question were often muddled. Students failed to distinguish between Kohlberg’s theory and gender schema theory, often stating they were one theory. Some were distracted by the term ‘cognitive’ and gave a cognitive approach answer with no reference to gender development. Description of the stages and age ranges was often inaccurate and relevant evidence was sometimes poorly described. Evaluation of the theory was often weak. Students did not seem to know how the studies they had described could be used to demonstrate that what was proposed in the theory was supported or challenged. Comparisons with alternative theories were often superficial.

E8. 
This question required students to focus on a methodological problem of a study in which cultural variations in gender development were investigated. The first issue was that some of the studies chosen were not about cultural variation. The second was that some students lost focus and instead described the study rather than explaining the problem identified. Even when a methodological problem was given the explanations were often a jumble of psychological terminology such as – researcher bias, subjectivity, lack of validity, not reliable, that lacked coherence.

E9. 
This question was generally well answered although some students explained agreement with the father in cognitive terms rather than psychodynamic terms.

E10. 
This was a reasonably well-answered question although some students were not able to develop their answer and make it clear why the limitation identified was a limitation.

E11. 
(a)     The majority of students gave a correct response to this question.
(b)     Many students were unable to explain why people with atypical chromosome patterns would be studied by psychologists. In particular, they did not always focus on the comparisons in behaviour that would be made and how it might be possible to attribute differences found to the presence of an extra X chromosome.

E12. 
This question was done reasonably well. An encouraging number of students were able to quote several research studies into social influences on gender; popular were parents, peers, school and teachers, and media, while a few answers outlined cross-cultural studies.
Descriptions of theoretical approaches, such as Kohlberg’s cognitive approach and gender schema theory, were creditable but only if the role of social influences was emphasised.
Weaker answers presented anecdotal lists of influences with little psychological content, or narrative accounts derived largely from sociology. A significant number of students included evaluative material that was not required by this question and did not earn marks.

E13. 
In this question there were some good examples of descriptive skills but some students did lose focus and much of their description became biological explanations of behaviour rather than biological explanations of gender development. References to evidence were generally good, but students did not use the evidence presented well. Students usually resorted to stating only that the research was support for a biological explanation but failed to elaborate how or why the evidence cited could be considered to support the explanation. Again, evaluative points often simply listed differences between biological and psychological explanations. It was rare that such simplistic comparisons were creditworthy as often they were undeveloped. For example, ’the biological approach ignores the unconscious which Freud says is important’ or ‘it ignores the mediating processes of the cognitive explanation’.

E14. 
(a)     Fewer than half of the responses to this question gained full credit. Many students could not outline gender stability clearly. Often, for the second part of the question, answers did not focus on stability and how the comment made by William showed his lack of stability – he did not understand his own gender is fixed, but instead introduced the concept of gender identity.

(b)     As seen in (a) above, the same proportions of students gained full credit and often students did not gain the second mark as they did not explain Tilly’s question with reference to constancy, but instead suggested she had achieved stability which was not evident from the information provided.

E15. 
(a)     The difficulty in this question seemed to be a lack of understanding of what was required. The question asked for detail of how the study was carried out. Students noted that they had to focus on a study and then launched into a description of the elements of their chosen study, citing the aim, method, results and conclusion. This meant that much of the description provided was irrelevant. Students should be aware that they can demonstrate an understanding of how science works by providing detail of exactly what researchers did to collect data in an investigation.

(b)     Some responses to this question were inappropriate as they did not present a methodological issue. In particular, some students attempted to suggest that a lack of temporal validity is a methodological issue when clearly a study can only be carried out when it is carried out. Thus, discussion of the relevance of the findings to a later time period is unlikely to be related to the methodology used by the researcher(s). Students are advised to consider carefully the relevance of possible issues to an identified study rather than just presenting any possible issue from their list of methodological or ethical issues.

E16. 
A number of students were un-prepared for this question and so were unable to provide an accurate description or evaluation of gender schema theory. It emphasises the importance of covering the whole specification content of any particular topic for the examination. The better students were able to define and describe cognitive schemas in terms of their structure, development and function in gender-related behaviour. They were able to refer to in groups and out groups, and the influence of gender schemas on cognitive processes, such as perception and memory. Such answers could receive AO1 marks in the top band. Weaker answers had some ideas on what schemas were but lacked detail and accuracy.

Effective evaluation used the findings of studies to support or contradict the role of schemas in gender-related perception and memory. Comparison with Kohlberg’s developmental stage theory and his concept of gender constancy was used effectively by some students. More often, however, there was confusion between Kohlberg and Gender Schema Theory (GST),and many answers failed to draw out the differences between them. Weaker students simply described Kohlberg’s model and appeared unaware that it differed from the gender schema approach. The work of Bem was introduced in some answers, but again the link to gender schema theory was usually unclear. Similarly the biological model of gender development was sometimes used effectively to evaluate GST, but more often students became diverted into the more dramatic case studies of gender reassignment, and did not link material back to the question.

E17. 
In the main, answers to this question were disappointing and it is apparent that there has been a decline, compared with previous examinations, in the ability of students to describe and discuss Freudian concepts. Often there was no reference to gender development as an unconscious process. The complexes were poorly described, with words / phrases such as ‘fancies,’ ‘drop dead,’ ‘kicks in,’ ‘decides to copy / imitate,’ and, in relation to the timing of gender development, gender is acquired ‘in one fell swoop.’ It was rare to see identification mentioned and even rarer for answers to refer to internalisation. Little Hans was misnamed and poorly described, and some essays included lots of irrelevant detail of stages other than the phallic stage. Evaluation points were often lists of issues, such as lack of science, or generalisability, and falsifiability, with little expansion of these issues. Although instructed to refer to biological explanations in the answer, some students just provided description of the biological approach, rather than drawing on evidence provided by biological researchers which shows that genes, hormones and chromosomes are of importance to this issue.

E18. 
Some students failed to notice the key word ‘methodological’ and instead launched into ethical issues. The practical issues related to gaining parental consent would have been creditworthy, but usually the focus was on treating the children ‘nicely.’ There were a number of responses in which students seemed to think that an ethical problem would be asking about gender if the children had not decided what their sexual orientation was, as this could be distressing. Such answers showed a completed lack of understanding of the question and what researchers might have been trying to find out from young children about their gender development.

E19. 
Unfortunately, a number of responses suggested that children do not copy some actions because they have been negatively reinforced.

E20. 
The majority of students seemed to understand modelling.

E21. 
The main answers to this question were disappointing. Students seemed to forget that the question was focused on gender development and did not select and shape their knowledge to the question requirements. There were many references to key terms but often these were not applied to the development of gender. Overall, there was a basic lack of appreciation of the fact that biological explanations do accept the impact of environment on the expression of genetic coding. It seems that students are locked into a simplistic understanding that there can be no overlap or complementarity of explanations and instead phrases such as, ‘the X approach ignores / rejects the Y approach,’ were often used in answers, when, in reality, this is just not the case.

E22. 
Some students failed to notice the key word, ‘difference’ and tried to provide definitions of the two terms without making clear a difference. Many do not understand that in stability the understanding of gender is that gender is fixed for the child him / herself. In constancy, this understanding is applied to all others.

E23. 
(a)     The majority of students seemed to understand something about gender schema theory but found it difficult to apply this knowledge to the study described and the results obtained. Some could not provide an accurate outline of a gender schema, others forgot to explain the results obtained.
(b)     Many answers did identify the key feature of this sampling method as one which uses people who are readily available.
(c)     This question posed a number of difficulties for students who either did not read the question or who misunderstood features of the type of interview proposed. Some answers focused only on types of questions (open and closed questions), others stated that unstructured interviews only use open questions and this is appropriate because….

E24. 
This was a relatively popular and straightforward question. Most students were able to outline Kohlberg’s stage theory of gender development, but to access the top band for AO1 there needed to be some account of underlying processes or concepts, eg maturation or universality. There was often variation in the age ranges of the different stages, but this reflects available textbooks and examiners were tolerant to minor variations. Answers varied in accuracy and detail, and in particular confusion over ‘stability’ and ‘consistency / constancy’ was common.
There are many relevant studies in this area and these provided the bulk of AO2 / 3 material for most students. The key to credit was the extent to which the implications of findings for Kohlberg’s theory were understood and clearly presented; some impressive answers followed the outline of each stage with relevant experimental findings. Methodological evaluation of studies was often repetitive and not linked back to the theory in terms of, for example, the reliability and validity of findings; such evaluation received little credit.
Alternative approaches, especially gender schema theory, were sometimes used effectively to evaluate Kohlberg. Often, however, the student went on to evaluate gender schema theory at great length, losing focus on the question. At the top end, though, there were some very impressive answers.
IDA used effectively in this area included cultural relativity, nature-nurture and alternative approaches, such as evidence for biological factors in gender development. Too often, however, such IDA points were simply stated, with no elaboration and no indication of clear understanding of their significance.