Author: Rebeca Griffin
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Q1.
A researcher carried out an overt observation study of social learning. For one week the helping behaviour of children in a playgroup was recorded. All the children then saw a short film in which a child was praised for tidying up toys. For the following week the helping behaviour of the same children in the playgroup was recorded.
(a)    Which of the following statements is the best description of an overt observation study?
Shade one box only.
 
A | The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour is being observed. |
B | The researcher uses a structured procedure in which behaviour is watched and recorded. |
C | The researcher watches and records behaviour in the setting it would normally occur. |
D | The researcher watches and records behaviour of a group that knows it is being observed. |
(1)
(b)    Briefly discuss one way in which a covert observation of children might be more beneficial than an overt observation.
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(3)
(c)     At the end of the observation study the researcher used a sign test to see if the behaviour of the children was more helpful, less helpful or the same after seeing the film than it was before they had seen the film.
Explain why the researcher decided the sign test would be an appropriate statistical test to use on the data from this study.
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(4)
(Total 8 marks)
Q2.
Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.
Twenty primary school teachers were sent by their individual head teachers to attend a training course in classroom behaviour management run by educational psychologists at a local university. Before the training course, and again after training, the teachers were asked to say how confident they were in managing difficult classroom behaviour.
The researchers compared the before and after answers to see how many teachers rated their confidence as ‘better’, ‘worse’, or ‘the same’ as it had been at the start of the course.
The results are shown in the table below:
 
| Confidence Better | Confidence Worse | Confidence Same
Number of teachers | 16 | 2 | 2
(a)  Which of A, B, C or D best describes this study? Shade one box only.
 
A | laboratory experiment |
B | pilot experiment |
C | natural experiment |
D | controlled experiment |
(1)
(b)  What fraction of the teachers thought that their confidence was better after the course? Show your workings.
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(2)
(c)  What might the researchers conclude about the training course on the basis of the data in the table? Explain your answer.
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(2)
(d)  What is the operationalised dependent variable in this study?
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(2)
(e)  Which experimental design is being used in this study and why would it be an appropriate design in this case?
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(3)
(f)   The psychologists conducting the training decided to use the Sign Test to see whether there was a significant difference in confidence in managing difficult classroom behaviour before and after the course.
Give the calculated value of S in this study and explain how you arrived at this figure.
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(3)
(g)  Explain why statistical testing is used in psychological research.
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(2)
(h)  Following the training course, one of the researchers carried out an overt classroom observation of each teacher’s primary school class. The researcher wanted to record the frequency of difficult classroom behaviours shown by the pupils during a normal lesson.
He identified six categories of disruptive behaviour and decided to record the frequency of each of the six behaviours during the first ten minutes and the last ten minutes of the lesson.
Suggest two behavioural categories that the researcher could record during his observation.
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(2)
(i)   Design a tally chart/record sheet the researcher could use to record his observations.
Show your tally chart/record in the box below.
 
(3)
(j)   Identify one problem that might have occurred during this observation and explain how the observation would be improved by addressing this problem.
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(4)
(Total 24 marks)
Q3.
A researcher wanted to see whether cognitive behaviour therapy was an effective treatment for depression. Twenty depressed patients who had all recently completed a course of cognitive behaviour therapy were involved in the investigation. From their employment records, the researcher kept a record of the number of absences from work each patient had in the year following their treatment. This was compared with the number of absences from work each patient had in the year prior to their treatment.
Those patients who had fewer absences from work in the year following their treatment than in the year prior to their treatment were classified as ‘improved’ (+). Those patients who had more absences were classified as ‘deteriorated’ (-). Those patients who had the same number of absences were classified as ‘neither’ (0).
The results of the investigation are included in Table 1 below.
Table 1
 
Patient | Improved | Deteriorated | Neither
1 | + | |
2 | | | 0
3 | | – |
4 | + | |
5 | + | |
6 | + | |
7 | | – |
8 | | – |
9 | | | 0
10 | + | |
11 | | – |
12 | + | |
13 | + | |
14 | + | |
15 | + | |
16 | | – |
17 | + | |
18 | + | |
19 | + | |
20 | | | 0
The researcher decided to use the sign test to analyse the data.
(a)     Explain two factors that the researcher had to take into account when deciding to use the sign test. Refer to the investigation above in your answer.
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(4)
(b)     Calculate the sign test value of s for the data in Table 1. Explain how you reached your answer.
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(2)
Table 2: Critical values for the sign test

n

0.005 (one
tailed)
0.01 (two
tailed)

0.01 (one
tailed)
0.02 (two
tailed)

0.025 (one
tailed)
0.05 (two
tailed)

0.05 (one
tailed)
0.10 (two
tailed)

16 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 4
17 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 4
18 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 5
For significance, the value of the less frequent sign is equal to, or less than, the value of the table.
(c)     With reference to the critical values in Table 2, explain whether or not the value of s that you calculated in response to question (b) is significant at the 0.05 level for a two tailed test.
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(2)
(d)     The investigation above is based on secondary data.
In what ways would the use of primary data have improved this investigation?
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(3)
(e)     Outline the implications of psychological research for the economy. Refer to the investigation above in your answer.
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(5)
(Total 16 marks)
Q4.
Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.

A psychologist was investigating the effect of prison conditions on institutional aggression.
He selected a sample of 12 prisoners and counted the number of aggressive acts of each prisoner over one day in the exercise yard.
The prison conditions were then changed, such that the number of prisoners per cell was reduced and regular exercise periods introduced.
After three months of these new conditions the psychologist observed the same 12 prisoners and again counted the number of aggressive acts of each prisoner over one day in the exercise yard.
This study involves a repeated measures design.

(a)  Explain one advantage of using a repeated measures design in this study.
(2)
(b)  The psychologist obtained the following results:
•   For two of the prisoners the number of aggressive acts increased
•   For eight of the prisoners the number of aggressive acts decreased
•   For two of the prisoners the number of aggressive acts stayed the same
The psychologist decides to use a sign test to see if his data are significant.
What is the calculated value of the sign test statistic ‘S’? Explain your answer.
(2)
(c)  Look at the table of critical values of ‘S’ below and then answer the question that follows.
 
N | .10 | .05 | .025 | .01
4 | 0 | | |
5 | 0 | 0 | |
6 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
7 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0
8 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0
9 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0
10 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0
11 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1
12 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1
To be significant, the calculated/observed value must be equal to or less than the critical/table value.
Using the table of critical values of ‘S’ above, state whether the findings of the study are significant at p < 0.05. Explain your answer.
(2)
(Total 6 marks)
Q5.
Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.

A psychologist wanted to see if a combination of behaviour modification and anger management would be effective in reducing levels of aggression in people given custodial sentences.
She selected a sample of 12 prisoners immediately after sentencing and counted the number of aggressive acts of each prisoner over one day.
The prisoners were then given one month of daily sessions of behaviour modification combined with anger management.
At the end of this month, they were again observed, and the number of aggressive acts of each prisoner was recorded over one day.
This study involves a repeated measures design.

(a)  Explain one advantage of using a repeated measures design in this study.
(2)
(b)  The psychologist obtained the following results:
•   For two of the prisoners the number of aggressive acts increased
•   For eight of the prisoners the number of aggressive acts decreased
•   For two of the prisoners the number of aggressive acts stayed the same
The psychologist decides to use a sign test to see if her data are significant.
What is the calculated value of the sign test statistic ‘S’? Explain your answer.
(2)
(c)  Look at the table of critical values of ‘S’ below and then answer the question that follows.
 
N | .10 | .05 | .025 | .01
4 | 0 | | |
5 | 0 | 0 | |
6 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
7 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0
8 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0
9 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0
10 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0
11 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1
12 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1
To be significant, the calculated/observed value must be equal to or less than the critical/table value.
Using the table of critical values of ‘S’ above, state whether the findings of the study are significant at p < 0.05. Explain your answer.
(2)
(Total 6 marks)
Q6.
Read the item and then answer the questions that follow.

A psychologist wanted to see if even a brief period of aversion therapy would help smokers reduce their level of smoking. A group of 12 volunteers who smoked regularly recorded the number of cigarettes smoked over a one week period.
The psychologist then exposed them to aversion therapy for one week.
The participants were then allowed to smoke freely recording the number of cigarettes smoked during the week following therapy.
This study involves a repeated measures design.

(a)  Explain one advantage of using a repeated measures design in this study.
(2)
(b)  The psychologist obtained the following results:
•   For two of the volunteers the number of cigarettes smoked increased
•   For eight of the volunteers the number of cigarettes smoked decreased
•   For two of the volunteers the number of cigarettes smoked stayed the same
The psychologist decides to use a sign test to see if the data are significant.
What is the calculated value of the sign test statistic ‘S’? Explain your answer.
(2)
(c)  Look at the table of critical values of ‘S’ below and then answer the question that follows.
 
N | .10 | .05 | .025 | .01
4 | 0 | | |
5 | 0 | 0 | |
6 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
7 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0
8 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0
9 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0
10 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0
11 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1
12 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1
To be significant, the calculated/observed value must be equal to or less than the critical/table value.
Using the table of critical values of ‘S’ above, state whether the findings of the study are significant at p < 0.05. Explain your answer.
(2)
(Total 6 marks)

Mark schemes
Q1.
(a)    [AO1 = 1]
1 mark for D
1
(b)    [AO3 = 3]
3 marks for a clear and coherent discussion of why a covert observation of children might be more beneficial than an overt observation using the detail given below.
2 marks for a discussion of why a covert observation of children might be more beneficial than an overt observation.
1 mark for a muddled or limited discussion, or for an answer with no comparison.
Possible content:
•   compared to an overt observation if the researcher is covert then the children are completely unaware that they are being monitored and this increases the likelihood of the behaviour that is produced being spontaneous and natural
•   the researcher can also be more certain that covertly collected data are more likely to be valid measurements of behaviour and / or that these behaviours might therefore indicate possible cause and effect relationships.
Credit other valid points including discussion of ethical issues.
3
(c)    [AO2 = 4]
 
Level | Mark | Description
2 | 3-4 | There is clear knowledge of why the sign test would be appropriate in this study, with some accurate detail. The answer is generally coherent with effective use of appropriate terminology.
1 | 1-2 | There is limited or partial knowledge of why the sign test would be appropriate with some detail. The answer lacks coherence and use of appropriate terminology.
| 0 | No relevant content.
Possible content:
•   the researcher is looking for a difference in helping behaviour and doing a sign test is one way in which the analysed data would show such a difference
•   the study focused on a single group of children who were tested under both conditions – the sign test can only be used with one group of participants / repeated measures design
•   using a sign test will allow the researcher to decide whether differences in helping behaviour are due to chance factors or a ‘real’ effect
•   this study produces quantitative/numerical data and the sign test is one way of analysing such data
•   there are rules about when a particular test can be used and in this case the design of the study meets the rules for using a sign test.
NOTE: reference to level of measurement is not expected, but can be credited, e.g.: this study produces data in the form of categories / behavioural categories / frequency counts (nominal level of measurement).
4
[8]
Q2.
(a)  [AO2 = 1]
1 mark C
(b)  [AO2 = 2]
1 mark 4/5^ths
1 mark for workings 16 divided by 4 = 4 and 20 divided by 4 = 5 (so 4/5^ths)
(c)  [AO3 = 2]
2 marks for a clear and coherent conclusion, plus relevant explanation based on the data.
1 mark for a vague/muddled conclusion.
Conclusion and explanation:
The training course appears to have a beneficial effect on teacher confidence as the majority of them (16 out of 20) say their confidence has improved.
(d)  [AO2 = 2]
2 marks for a clearly operationalised dependent variable: the DV is whether the teachers thought their confidence in managing difficult behaviour was better, worse or the same after the course.
1 mark for a dependent variable that is not fully operationalised eg teachers’ confidence/how they felt after doing the course.
(e)  [AO2 = 3]
1 mark repeated measures design
Plus
2 marks for a clear and coherent explanation of why this design is appropriate in this case
1 mark for a vague or muddled explanation of why this design is appropriate in this case
Content:
It is important to ask the same participants to consider their level of confidence before and after taking part in the training in order to see whether their confidence has changed. It would not make sense to ask one group of people before training and another group of people after training because there may be individual differences in their levels of confidence anyway.
(f)   [AO2 = 3]
1 mark calculated value of S = 2
Plus two marks for any two of the following points:
1 mark this is determined by converting the differences or outcomes to signs + or −
1 mark then taking the numerical value for/number of participants with the least common/frequent sign
1 mark any nil differences are ignored
(g)  [AO1 = 2]
2 marks for a clear and coherent explanation
1 mark for a vague/muddled explanation
Content:
researchers use statistical tests to determine the likelihood that the effect/difference/relationship they have found has occurred due to chance.
(h)  [AO3 = 2]
1 mark for each valid behavioural category suggested.
For credit the behaviour should be an observable behaviour that is disruptive or disobedient and would be likely to occur in a primary school classroom eg throwing something, shouting, banging on the desk.
(i)   [AO3 = 3]
Award marks for a suitable record sheet/tally chart in table form.
1 mark for each bullet point addressed
•   Table with spaces for tallies/recordings of instances
•   Separate spaces for first and last 10 minutes
•   Headed correctly with the six category spaces (may include the two used in answer to part (h) but names of categories not essential here)
No marks for drawing a bar chart or graph.
(j)   [AO3 = 4]
 
Level | Marks | Description
2 | 3 – 4 | A relevant problem is clearly identified. The explanation of how the observation would be improved by addressing this problem is appropriate and effective. The answer is generally coherent with effective use of appropriate terminology.
1 | 1 – 2 | A relevant problem is identified. There is partial/limited explanation of how the observation would be improved by addressing this problem. The answer lacks coherence and use of appropriate terminology.
| 0 | No relevant content.
Relevant problems:
•   observer effect (as observation is overt) means pupils would behave differently because they are aware that they are being observed – could be addressed by carrying out a covert observation
•   observer bias/lack of objectivity because the researcher is working alone – could be addressed by working as part of a pair for inter-observer reliability
•   limiting observations to first and last 10 minutes means the data may not be a valid representation of disruptive behaviour in lessons. Need to carry out observations at other times during the lesson too.
Q3.
(a)     [AO2 = 4]
2 marks for identifying two factors that are relevant for use of the sign test: nominal/categorical data; test of difference; related design/repeated measures.
Plus
Up to 2 marks for application of these to the investigation described:
•        Nominal data as patients are assigned to one of three categories – ‘improved’, ‘deteriorated’ or ‘neither’.
•        Testing for difference in the number of absences in the year following and prior to treatment.
•        Repeated measures as the same patients' work records are compared before and after treatment.
(b)     [AO2 = 2]
1 mark for identifying the correct value of s as 5
Plus
1 mark for explanation/calculation of how this was arrived at:
•        The most commonly occurring sign is + (12) and the least frequently occurring sign is – (5). The 0s are disregarded.
•        The total for the least frequently occurring sign is the value of s = 5
(c)     [AO2 = 2]
1 mark for stating that the value of s (5) is not significant at the 0.05 level.
Plus
1 mark for explanation:
•        The critical value is 4. As the calculated value is higher than/exceeds the critical value, the result is significant not at the 0.05 level.
Accept alternative wording
(d)     [AO3 = 3]
Marks may be awarded for a single point that is expanded/elaborated or more than one point briefly stated.
1 mark only if there is no reference to the investigation described.
Possible points:
•        Primary data are obtained ‘first-hand’ from the participants themselves so are likely to lead to greater insight: e.g. into the patients' experience of treatment, whether they found it beneficial, negative, etc.
•        Secondary data, such as time off work, may not be a valid measure of improvement in symptoms of depression. Primary data are more authentic and provide more than a surface understanding: e.g. participants may have taken time off work for reasons not related to their depression.
•        The content of the data is more likely to match the researcher’s needs and objectives because questions, assessment tools, etc. can be specifically tailored: e.g. an interview may produce more valid data than a list of absences.
(e)     [AO1 = 3 AO2 = 2]
 
Level | Marks | Description
3 | 4 – 5 | Knowledge of the implications of psychological research for the economy is clear. Application to the investigation described is effective. The answer is coherent with effective use of terminology.
2 | 2 – 3 | Some knowledge of the implications of psychological research for the economy is present but there is a lack of detail/clarity. Application to the investigation described is limited or absent. Terminology is used appropriately on occasion.
1 | 1 | An implication of psychological research for the economy is briefly stated.
| 0 | No relevant content.
AO1 – possible content:
•        Psychological research may lead to improvements in psychological health/treatment programmes which may mean that people manage their health better and take less time off work.
•        Absence from work costs the economy an estimated 15 billion a year annually and much of this absence is due to ‘mild’ mental illness: e.g. stress, anxiety.
•        Psychological research may lead to better ways of managing people whilst they are at work to improve productivity: e.g. research into motivation and workplace stress.
•        ‘Cutting-edge’ scientific research may encourage investment from overseas companies into this country.
Credit other relevant points/implications, including examples not linked to psychopathology.
AO2 – application
•        If research (such as the investigation described) suggests that depressives are better able to manage their condition following CBT and return to work, then it may benefit the economy to make treatment more widely available, improve funding, etc.
•        Psychological research such as this plays an important role in sustaining a healthy workforce and reducing absenteeism.
Credit other relevant application points.
Q4.
(a)  [AO3 = 2]
1 mark for a brief explanation
Plus
1 mark for elaboration
Possible content:
Control for individual differences so that the researcher can be more certain that the effect is not due to characteristics such as gender, personality etc.
Credit other relevant advantages.
(b)  [AO2 = 2]
1 mark - Value of ‘S’ is 2.
Plus
1 mark for explanation - ‘S’ is the frequency of the least common difference. There are 8 positive differences, 2 negative differences and 2 ties.
(c)  [AO2 = 2]
1 mark for identifying the correct value of N (N = 10, total number of differences)
Plus
1 mark for stating that for an N of 10, a value of ‘S’ = 2 is not significant at the p≤ .05 level.
Q5.
(a)  [AO3 = 2]
1 mark for a brief explanation
Plus
1 mark for elaboration
Possible content:
Control for individual differences so that the researcher can be more certain that the effect is not due to characteristics such as gender, personality etc.
Credit other relevant advantages.
(b)  [AO2 = 2]
1 mark - Value of ‘S’ is 2.
Plus
1 mark for explanation - ‘S’ is the frequency of the least common difference. There are 8 positive differences, 2 negative differences and 2 ties.
(c)  [AO2 = 2]
1 mark for identifying the correct value of N (N = 10, total number of differences)
Plus
1 mark for stating that for an N of 10, a value of ‘S’ = 2 is not significant at the p ≤ .05 level.
Q6.
(a)  [AO3 = 2]
1 mark for a brief explanation
Plus
1 mark for elaboration
Possible content:
Control for individual differences so that the researcher can be more certain that the effect is not due to characteristics such as gender, personality etc.
Credit other relevant advantages.
(b)  [AO2 = 2]
1 mark - Value of ‘S’ is 2.
Plus
1 mark for explanation - ‘S’ is the frequency of the least common difference. There are 8 positive differences, 2 negative differences and 2 ties.
(c)  [AO2 = 2]
1 mark for identifying the correct value of N (N = 10, total number of differences)
Plus
1 mark for stating that for an N of 10, a value of ‘S’ = 2 is not significant at the p ≤ .05 level.